Faculty Authors Display 2022

Freshwater ecosystems, whether surface, groundwater or in the form of ice caps are fundamental for human life and for supporting the vast biodiversity, natural processes and cycling. They provide ecosystem services, thus, benefits for humans and their societies obtained from nature, in all four categories: provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting. The importance of sustaining ecosystem integrity via protecting the ecosystem services, is undeniable. However, it comprises a big challenge provided the human-induced degradation of the natural environment that, in turn, affects the earth’s natural capital: natural resources, associated services with the supporting processes.

Background

Previous studies have highlighted serum uric acid as a putative idiopathic Parkinson’s disease (iPD) biomarker. Only one study, so far, showed higher levels of serum uric acid in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK + 2) carriers compared to those who developed PD, however a longitudinal comparison between LRRK2 + PD and healthy controls (HC) has not been performed.

Objective

The aim of this study was to determine whether there are longitudinal differences in serum uric acid between iPD, LRRK2 + PD and HC and their association with motor and non-motor features.

Methods

Longitudinal data of uric acid of 282 de novo iPD, 144 LRRK2 + PD patients, and 195 age-matched HC were obtained from the Parkinson’s Progression Markers Initiative (PPMI) database. We also used longitudinal Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), Movement Disorder Society–Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale part III (MDS-UPDRS-III), Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) scores, and DaTSCAN striatal binding ratios (SBRs).

Results

Longitudinal uric acid measurements were significantly lower in LRRK2 + PD patients compared to HC up to 5 years follow-up. There was no significant impact or correlation of adjusted or unadjusted uric acid levels with MoCA, MDS-UPDRS III, or GDS scores, the presence of RBD or DAT-SCAN SBRs.

Conclusion

LRRK2 + PD group had significantly lower uric acid concentrations compared to HC after adjusting for age, sex and baseline BMI up to 5 years follow-up. There were no significant associations between uric acid levels and indices of disease severity. These findings identify serum uric acid as a marker linked to LRRK2 + PD.

Intraindividual variability is a fundamental behavioural characteristic of aging but has been examined to a very limited extent in driving. This study investigated intraindividual variability in driving simulator measures in healthy drivers of different ages using the coefficient of variation (COV) as a variability measure. Participants were healthy volunteers who were regular drivers, who were divided into a “young” group, a “middle-aged” group, and an “old” group. They drove in two environments (rural, 72 drivers; urban, 60 drivers), under conditions of moderate and high traffic load, without and with distraction (conversation). Significant differences in COV were observed in the rural condition for headway distance and lateral position as a function of traffic load, with high traffic (without and with distraction) resulting in increased COV of headway and decreased COV of lateral position. Significant differences in COV were observed in the urban condition for headway distance only, with high traffic (without and with distraction) resulting in increased COV of headway. No age effects were found for any of the driving conditions. The results indicate that traffic load affected headway distance and lateral position in opposite directions in all three age groups: high traffic resulted in increased variability of headway in both rural and urban conditions but in decreased variability of lateral position in the rural conditions compared to moderate traffic irrespective of distraction. The study indicates that driving conditions affect the intraindividual variability of driving measures in selective ways, which may be linked to the extent of automatization of the driving variables and to adaptive changes to traffic condition challenges.

Neuropsychology is a fast-growing specialty in Greece. This study surveyed the status of neuropsychologists in Greece investigating several aspects of the profession. An online-based questionnaire collected data from December 2019 to February 2020. A total of 133 participants specialized in neuropsychology were included in the final sample: 81% of the participants were women with a mean age of 35 years. In the total sample, 25.8% of the participants reported working in the hospital system, 18.5% in the university or college, and 17.7% in a private practice job. Greek professionals cited to engage actively in assessment (87.9%), in research (65.1%), in rehabilitation (47.7%), and teaching (30.2%). Professionals primarily declared to assess individuals with dementia (80.3%), depression (47.7%), and stroke (44.0%), and they reported neurologists, psychiatrists and psychologists as their leading sources of referrals. The top five perceived barriers to the field include the lack of recognized specialty (75.9%), the lack of clinical training opportunities (63.9%), the lack of strong professional associations (57.9%), the lack of access to neuropsychological instruments (57.9%) and the lack of willingness to collaborate between professionals (48.9%). The average monthly income of professionals represents a ratio of 0.76 in comparison to that of other scientists in the country and is the lowest reported among other countries. Despite the significant development of the profession, it is essential to create more clinical training opportunities, apply practices systematically to diverse populations, redefine the specialty of neuropsychology in the national health system of the country, and advocate for the profession.

Introduction

Higher prevalence of motor and non-motor features has been observed in non-manifesting mutation carriers of Parkinson's Disease (PD) compared to Healthy Controls (HC). The aim was to detect the differences between GBA and LRRK2 mutation carriers without PD and HC on neuropsychiatric symptoms.

Methods

This is a cross-sectional retrospective study of non-manifesting GBA and LRRK2 mutation carriers and HC enrolled into Parkinson's Progression Markers Initiative (PPMI). Data extracted from the PPMI database contained: demographics and performance in MoCA scale and MDS-UPDRS scale part 1A (neuropsychiatric symptoms). All six features were treated as both continuous (MDS-UPDRS individual scores) and categorical variables (MDS-UPDRS individual score>0 and MDS-UPDRS individual score = 0). Logistic regression analyses were applied to evaluate the association between mutation carrying status and neuropsychiatric symptoms.

Results

In this study, the neuropsychiatric evaluation was performed in 285 GBA non-manifesting carriers, 369 LRRK2 non-manifesting carriers and 195 HC. We found that GBA non-manifesting mutation carriers were 2.6 times more likely to present apathy compared to HC, even after adjustment for covariates (adjusted OR = 2.6, 95% CI = 1.1–6.3, p = 0.031). The higher percentage of apathy for LRRK2 carriers compared to HC was marginally non-significant. GBA carriers were 1.5 times more likely to develop features of anxiety compared to LRRK2 carriers (adjusted OR = 1.5, 95% CI = 1.1–2.2, p = 0.015). Other neuropsychiatric symptoms, such as psychotic or depressive manifestations, did not differ between groups.

Conclusion

Symptoms of apathy could be present in the prediagnostic period of non-manifesting mutation carriers, especially, GBA. Longitudinal data, including detailed neuropsychiatric evaluation and neuroimaging, would be essential to further investigate the pathophysiological basis of this finding.

Background

The driving behavior of patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease dementia (ADD) and patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is frequently characterized by errors. A genetic factor affecting cognition is apolipoprotein E4 (APOE4), with carriers of APOE4 showing greater episodic memory impairment than non-carriers. However, differences in the driving performance of the two groups have not been investigated.

Objective

To compare driving performance in APOE4 carriers and matched non-carriers.

Methods

Fourteen APOE4 carriers and 14 non-carriers with amnestic MCI or mild ADD underwent detailed medical and neuropsychological assessment and participated in a driving simulation experiment, involving driving in moderate and high traffic volume in a rural environment. Driving measures were speed, lateral position, headway distance and their SDs, and reaction time. APOE was genotyped through plasma samples.

Results

Mixed two-way ANOVAs examining traffic volume and APOE4 status showed a significant effect of traffic volume on all driving variables, but a significant effect of APOE4 on speed variability only. APOE4 carriers were less variable in their speed than non-carriers; this remained significant after a Bonferroni correction. To further examine variability in the driving performance, coefficients of variation (COV) were computed. Larger headway distance COV and smaller lateral position COV were observed in high compared to moderate traffic. APOE4 carriers had smaller speed COV compared to non-carriers.

Conclusion

The lower speed variability of APOE4 carriers in the absence of neuropsychological test differences indicates reduced speed adaptations, possibly as a compensatory strategy. Simulated driving may be a sensitive method for detecting performance differences in the absence of cognitive differences.

Predictive maintenance, quality management, and zero-defect manufacturing are among the most prominent smart manufacturing use cases in the Industry4.0 era. Nevertheless, the development of such systems is still challenging because of the need to integrate multiple fragmented data sources, to apply advanced machine learning techniques for multi-objective optimizations, and to implement configurable digital twins that can flexibly adapt to changing industrial configurations. This paper presents the architecture, design, practical implementation, and evaluation of an end-to-end platform that addresses these challenges. The platform provides the means for collecting, managing, and routing data streams from heterogeneous cyber physical production systems, in configurable and interoperable ways. Moreover, it supports advanced data analytics by means of a novel machine learning framework that leverages quantitative rule mining. The presented platform has been successfully deployed in various industrial settings and has been positively evaluated in terms of its ability to accelerate application development, reduce unscheduled downtimes, provide increased Overall Equipment Efficiency (OEE), compute production process parameter configurations that lower the percentage of product defects, and predict product defects before they occur.

Learning methods have been increasingly used in power engineering to perform various tasks. In this paper, a fault selection procedure in double-circuit transmission lines employing different learning methods is accordingly proposed. In the proposed procedure, the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) is used to pre-process raw data from the transmission line before it is fed into the learning algorithm, which will detect and classify any fault based on a training period. The performance of different machine learning algorithms is then numerically compared through simulations. The comparison indicates that an artificial neural network (ANN) achieves remarkable accuracy of 98.47%. As a drawback, the ANN method cannot provide explainable results and is also not robust against noisy measurements. Subsequently, it is demonstrated that explainable results can be obtained with high accuracy by using rulebased learners such as the recently developed quantitative association rule mining algorithm (QARMA). The QARMA algorithm outperforms other explainable schemes, while attaining an accuracy of 98%. Besides, it was shown that QARMA leads to a very high accuracy of 97% for highly noisy data. The proposed method was also validated using data from an actual transmission line fault. In summary, the proposed two-step procedure using the DFT combined with either deep learning or rule-based algorithms can accurately and successfully perform fault selection tasks but indicating remarkable advantages of the QARMA due to its explainability and robustness against noise. Those aspects are extremely important if machine learning and other data-driven methods are to be employed in critical engineering applications.

This contributing chapter will scientifically discuss the current causes and consequences of occupational stress in Greece. Focusing on both theoretical and empirical data, this chapter will explore how the stressors and strains in Greece are unique and ever-changing, primarily as a consequence of the economic and political instability found in global recessionary times (Fotinatos-Ventouratos & Cooper, 2015). It is evident that most organizations in both the public and private sector have been directly tarnished by turbulent times, making the occupational stressors both severe and chronic, while simultaneously touching on the lives of most employees in this particular country. Accelerating the stress-strain relationship are specific cultural issues that often hinder the Greek situation, making possible scientifically-proven intervention strategies difficult to install and maintain. Hence, the direct influences of local culture, as well as customized support services will be addressed in order to shed light on the unique and accumulating stressors identified in this particular European country and organizations at large.

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Notwithstanding similarities between earlier 18th- and 19th-century travelogues with 20th-century descriptions of Athens that reveal the political and ideological dimensions of the Western European search for its ancestry in the canonization of the city as the ‘cradle’ of Western civilization, many travelers to fin de siècle Athens sometimes emphasized the city’s modernization and identity parallel to a reconstructed image of its classical past. In this context, the essay presents hitherto unpublished 20th-century archival material that further highlight the pressures of historicism and the ways in which this contributed to the abuses of Athenian history that nurtured the Greek capital as the battleground over the hegemony of European culture.

This volume provides an overview of the history of Greece, while also focusing on contemporary Greece. Coverage includes such 21st-century challenges as the economic crisis and the influx of immigrants and refugees that is changing the country's character.

This latest volume in the Understanding Modern Nations series explores Greece, the birthplace of democracy and Western philosophical ideas.

This thematic encyclopedia is one-of-its kind in its down-to-earth approach and comprehensive analysis of complex issues now facing Greece. It analyzes such topics as government and economics without jargon and brings a lighthearted approach to chapters on such topics as etiquette (e.g., what gestures to avoid so as not to offend), leisure (how Greeks celebrate holidays), and language (the meaning of “opa”). No other book on Greece is organized like this thematic encyclopedia, which has more than 200 entries on topics ranging from Archimedes to refugees. Unique to this encyclopedia is a “Day in the Life” section that explores the actions and thoughts of a high school student, a bank employee, a farmer in a small village, and a retired couple, giving readers a vivid snapshot of life in Greece.

The current scoping study conducted in Greece aimed to explore the training needs and attitudes held by educationalists on inclusive education for pupils with autism. Whilst educational policies and practice advocate for inclusive education for children with autism, actual provision is segregated between mainstream, special schools and multi-disciplinary therapy centers. These centers operate under the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare and are certified by the Ministry of Education. They collaborate with schools to ensure the seamless inclusion of children with autism into school. Whilst Greek educationalists believe on principle that inclusion is essential in the quest to foster community presence and integration for children with autism, in practice there are barriers to inclusive education; primarily these include the current financial crisis and budget cuts in Education as well as an anxiety on the part of teachers on how best to practice inclusive education, whilst protecting and maintaining the safety of autistic children. This ambivalence stems from insufficient knowledge, skills and experience and has significant implications for children with special needs, their families and for society as a whole. The current study aimed to address this ambivalence by, as an initial step, ensuring that all teachers are granted appropriate training and professional support so that children with autism are given the opportunity to flourish within inclusive educational settings.

The pervasiveness of social media in the lives of the young has prompted a growing number of studies investigating their effects on online and offline behaviors, especially when it comes to risk or self -harm behaviors. The examination of self- harm behaviors both suicidal and nonsuicidal is grounded primarily in psychological and medical research but the increase in the number of adolescents who self- harm, in the last few years, expanded research into the use of social media. While there were both positive and negative accounts of the relationship of social media use to self- harm, this paper addresses the issue from a communication perspective. The main argument of this paper is that social media are complex interactive, multimodal and multidirectional environments and user created cultures that cannot be understood through traditional theories of media effects or simply in quantitative terms of uses and gratifications. Drawing from contemporary studies on media effects and social media affordances, this is an attempt to map the theoretical and methodological challenges in an effort to lay the ground for an enhanced understanding of social media as mediators in self-harming behaviors. A review of current studies in this field reconfirms the conditional and indirect character of media effects identifying at the same time the limitations and gaps in the examination of a complex behavior as it relates to multimodal “self- mass communication” (Castells, 2009) that leads to new forms of “socialized communication”. Further research on social media affordances and their effects on the cognitive and social-emotional development of young people will provide a better analytical framework not only for the assessment of self-harm but also for using social media to mitigate negative behaviors.

Road traffic accidents are a major cause of morbidity and mortality in developed and developing countries, and while human error is a rather unavoidable cause, driving under the influence of drugs or while suffering from medical conditions of physical and mental pathology can potentially be avoided. Driving is a complex psychomotor activity and deficiency at any functional level brings about adverse effects on driving behaviour. Numerous causes have been identified that make driving unsafe, including alcohol, illicit drugs, legal medications, fatigue, distraction, and various medical conditions. There is considerable controversy regarding the driving ability of patients with mental disorders, which may vary between patients, both because of the type of disorder and because of the effects of psychiatric medication on driving. This review article seeks answers in the literature to key questions such as whether individuals with a psychiatric disorder are at increased risk of a road traffic accident and whether there are specific psychiatric disorders that present a particularly high risk, whether individuals taking psychiatric medications are at increased risk of a road traffic accident compared to individuals not taking similar medications, and which personality disorders’ characteristics are associated with risky driving behavior.

Recent estimates suggest that more than 40 million people worldwide are in situations of modern slavery and other forms of labor exploitation. UN Sustainable Development Goal 8.7 addresses this problem and urges stakeholders to take effective measures to end all forms of labor exploitation by 2030. Labor exploitation is often a direct consequence of forced migration, and humanitarian operations have a key role to play in tackling this issue worldwide. Academic research can facilitate this by providing the necessary decision-making tools to support antislavery practitioners in humanitarian organizations and governments. For effective resource allocation, these practitioners need tools to help them systematically identify and assess the risks of labor exploitation in an area. In this study, we develop a multi-method approach that combines various data sources to capture the issue's complex and multidimensional nature. Through satellite remote sensing, we first identify 50 informal settlements hosting migrant workers in the strawberry production area of Southern Greece. We then apply a multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) method to a subset of six informal settlements in order to evaluate their labor exploitation risks based on eight criteria. In addition to being practically implemented by a humanitarian organization and a government agency in Greece, our study advances research on humanitarian operations and labor exploitation by elucidating how a multi-method approach can be used for data-driven prioritization of interventions against labor exploitation. Our approach offers opportunities for other applications in the field of humanitarian operations.

Gender is a fragile construction that evolves constantly, through social acceptance and affirmation. A major space for this exchange is the digital sphere where gender is perpetually in the process of redefinition and negotiation. In this context, two online forces with opposing agendas currently put a claim on the future of masculinity: the Manosphere and the Manconomy. The former is devoted to men’s rights, sustaining a traditional view of masculinity, based on misogyny. The latter focuses on the efforts of Manconomy, whose goal is to help men adapt to the changing gender balance in contemporary society. These opposed legions approach male identity from different perspectives, the traditional versus the modernized, each envisioning a different future for the role of men. This paper examines the manifestations of masculinity through the narratives that each side offers in the digital public spaces they occupy (e.g. blogs, social media, and forums) in their effort to reshape the future of masculinity.

Human Resource (HR) algorithms are now widely used for decision making in the field of HR. In this paper, we examine how biases may become entrenched in HR algorithms, which are often designed without consultation with HR specialists, assumed to operate with scientific objectivity and often viewed as instruments beyond scrutiny. Using three orienting concepts such as scientism, illusio and rationales, we demonstrate why and how biases of HR algorithms go unchecked and in turn may perpetuate the biases in HR systems and consequent HR decisions. Based on a narrative review, we examine bias in HR algorithms; provide a methodology for algorithmic hygiene for HR professionals.

In response to the COVID-19 Pandemic many European governments responded by securitizing the pandemic and adopting a series of emergency measures in order to curb the spread of the pandemic. However, in most cases the measures were unsuccessful. Does this constitute a failure of securitization? In order to address this question, we will analyze the case of Greece. The case of Greece is particularly interesting because it was one of the first countries to adopt emergency measures and for a time it was heralded as a success story in countering the effects of the pandemic. According to the findings of this brief, the case of Greece does not constitute a failure of securitization. The Greek government did show a degree of inconsistency in its efforts of securitizing the pandemic but that was consistent with the fluctuation of the number of confirmed cases and COVID-19 related deaths and the impact of the pandemic on the Greek economy and attitude of the general population.

With the increasing interest of pop culture and academia towards environmental issues, which has simultaneously given rise to fiction and artworks dealing with interdisciplinary issues, climate change is an undeniable reality of our time. In accordance with the severe environmental degradation and health crises today, including the COVID-19 pandemic, human beings are awakening to this reality through climate fiction (cli-fi), which depicts ways to deal with the anthropogenic transformations on Earth through apocalyptic worlds as displayed in works of literature, media and art. Appealing to a wide range of readers, from NGOs to students, this book fills a gap in the fields of literature, media and art, and sheds light on the inevitable interconnection of humankind with the nonhuman environment through effective descriptions of associable conditions in the works of climate fiction.

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Purpose

This paper aims to examine brand-generated communities from the community managers’ point of view and investigate how social media influences managerial perceptions, attitudes and practises around brand communities.

Design/methodology/approach

The literature review examines the most prominent constructs describing consumer groupings around brands. It then focuses on how the term “brand community” has evolved throughout the years and transformed in the social media environment. Research involving one survey and one focus group among agency-employed brand community managers was conducted to explore and interpret their views and their work.

Findings

Brand community managers aim to increase platform metrics. They encourage interaction between each user and the brand, but not between users. While they execute pre-planned content calendars handling comments, they do not have the experience and autonomy to foster a communal environment. Finally, managers rely on extrinsic incentives, and even antagonise users, regarding control over the community.

Research limitations/implications

The sample covers the majority of agency-employed brand community managers in one country: Greece. The findings call for a re-examination of the construct of brand community, as well as for a new assessment of groupings consumers form around brands in social media.

Practical implications

For actual brand communities to emerge in social media, community managers should have more training, experience and initiative to tailor content and metrics, use intrinsic incentives and propose engaging activities. The quest for platform-imposed measurements inhibits this opportunity, and so do centralised processes that define global brand management.

Originality/value

The managerial aspect of brand-generated communities is understudied, especially when management is outsourced. This paper provides insight on how platform priorities and managerial practises dilute expectations that consumer-generated communities have created.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has already led to a dramatic loss of human life and has negatively affected the well-being of people, including numerous sectors such as health, work, economy, culture, as well as education. This kind of disruption not only has raised many concerns but it has also forced humans to interdisciplinary collaborations to fast find smart solutions if not an effective therapy and/or successful vaccines. Digital transformation is a main driver toward finding smart solutions often based on artificial intelligence and information communication technologies such as big data analytics and machine learning, combined with mainly the recent advancements in molecular biology, bioinformatics, and pharmacology as well as in areas related to health-care policies. This chapter examines ways of empowering the One Health approach and health resilience with digital technologies across Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries using as a case study the COVID-19 pandemic. It also offers smart solutions and a framework on digital technologies that strengthen health systems, as illustrated by the fast deployment of various digital tools and resilient solutions that have allowed countries to better detect and prevent the spread of the disease and to effectively respond to the pandemic.

Existing literature on dolphin-fisheries interaction focused on Greece reveals both an undeveloped area for research, but also a lack of relevant data in this field. Although imperative, relevant research has been slow on innovation and cooperation among universities, official bureaus, and NGOs that are obliged to work together as European and national laws dictate. Most of the research in this new field focuses on the interaction between marine mammals and local fisheries, suggesting that this relationship may be problematic for both parties since the former are being treated (at least occasionally) with brutality, while the latter try to deal with economic loss. Dolphins and fishermen operate within the same ecological niches for their survival, the main area of conflict being nutritious fish. Anthropological research on ethnic identity has long dealt with antagonistic relationships over resources between adjacent groups of people. Marine biologists’ research in Greece focuses on the human factor, and some of its shortcomings may well be seen as the result of limited, or an absence of, training in social sciences. This article attempts to draw from anthropological theory to shed light on a particular symbiosis between humans and dolphins. Multidisciplinary approaches gain ground in a wide range of research interests and seem to be fruitful in terms of theoretical and practical results.

The revived interest in the Roman past in tenth–twelfth century Byzantium led to a revived interest in ancient historical writings, and in particular Cassius Dios’ Roman History, the most comprehensive Greek narrative of the history of Rome. Whereas in earlier periods Dio was mainly referenced by grammarians and moralists, scholars of the tenth through twelfth centuries, who admired Dios’ classicizing prose and identified with his focus on emperors and dynasties, copied, excerpted and abridged his lengthy account. Notably, excerpts from the Roman History were included in the tenth-century Excerpta Constantiniana, a voluminous assemblage of excerpts from historians ranging from the fifth century BC to the ninth century AD commissioned by Constantine VII. An epitome of the Roman History was made by John Xiphilinus, probably for the education of the young Michael VII in the eleventh century, and the text was adapted by John Zonaras in his sophisticated world chronicle in the twelfth century. In addition to these major works, Dio was referenced and utilized by poets such as Theodosios the Deacon, scholars such as John Tzetzes, and educated laymen like Kekaumenos. All this indicates a familiarity with and esteem for Dio’s Roman History not only in court circles but also among the educated reading public.

Gender is a fragile construction that evolves constantly, through social acceptance and affirmation. A major space for this exchange is the digital sphere where gender is perpetually in the process of redefinition and negotiation. In this context, two online forces with opposing agendas currently put a claim on the future of masculinity: the Manosphere and the Manconomy. The former is devoted to men’s rights, sustaining a traditional view of masculinity, based on misogyny. The latter focuses on the efforts of Manconomy, whose goal is to help men adapt to the changing gender balance in contemporary society. These opposed legions approach male identity from different perspectives, the traditional versus the modernized, each envisioning a different future for the role of men. This paper examines the manifestations of masculinity through the narratives that each side offers in the digital public spaces they occupy (e.g. blogs, social media, and forums) in their effort to reshape the future of masculinity.

In September 2017, Dr Nasser Kurdy was stabbed in the neck while entering the grounds of his local mosque. This book tells the story of that attack and how Dr Kurdy came to forgive his attacker. It lays out the international historical events that brought Dr Kurdy to be in that place at that time and it follows events after the attack, combining his surgical knowledge with his experience of the UK criminal justice system as well as a series of reflective enquiries into the nature of forgiveness. The book is the timely and inspiring story of the optimism that can emerge from violence. It also includes contributions from a number of friends, family, and colleagues of Dr Kurdy, which illustrate the impact such an attack can have beyond that on a single individual.

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